Taxonomic reassessment and rejection of the spider family Fonteferreidae Wunderlich, 2023 (Araneae)

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  Taxonomic reassessment and rejection of the spider family Fonteferreidae Wunderlich, 2023 (Araneae) Abstract The taxonomic validity of the spider family  Fonteferreidae  Wunderlich, 2023 is re-evaluated in light of new morphological evidence. This araneoid family was originally established based on a single specimen, the male holotype, that lacked both distinctive somatic characters and reproductive structures. Upon re-examination, the holotype specimen was found to be a subadult male, and consequently the diagnostic traits previously cited to justify its familial status are found to be unsubstantiated. In absence of the necessary empirical evidence, the erection of the family  Fonteferreidae , the genus  Fonteferrea  Wunderlich, 2023, and  F.   minutissima  Wunderlich, 2023 must be rejected. We recommend that  Fonteferrea   minutissima , the genus  Fonteferrea , and the family  Fonteferreidae  be formally treated a...

Venom composition of Tityus cerroazul (Scorpiones: Buthidae) reveals similarities with venoms of other scorpion species from northern South America

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Venom composition of Tityus cerroazul (Scorpiones: Buthidae) reveals similarities with venoms of other scorpion species from northern South America

Abstract

Several buthid scorpions from Costa Rica and Panama have been extensively characterized for their venom components. One exception is Tityus cerroazul, a peculiar species classified in the subgenus Tityus, separated from the rest of the members of the genus that inhabit this geographic region. Although it has been described as a species that prefers natural areas with low human impact, which could explain the few reported envenomation cases, pre-clinical studies indicate that its venom may be toxic to mammals.
This analysis describes the venom composition and enzymatic activities of T. cerroazul specimens from Panama. Among the identified venom components, we report the presence of NaTxs TdNa5 and bactridin-1 from T. discrepans from Venezuela, as well as partial sequences corresponding to other putative Na+ and K+ toxins, antimicrobial peptides, protease inhibitors, and secreted proteins, mostly found in the venoms of the T. (Atreus) species. We also confirmed the presence of the four peptides (Tce1-Tce4) identified by previous molecular analyses.
In conclusion, our study suggests that T. cerroazul does not align closely with the venom of species currently assigned to the subgenus Tityus. Instead, it shows a greater similarity to the venom of the Atreus subgenus, which includes most of the Tityus species that inhabit the region. This finding underscores the need to revise its taxonomic classification based on molecular phylogenetic characters.
Díaz, C., Mack-Prado, M., Bonilla, E., Chang-Castillo, A., Bonilla, F., Ortiz, N., Angulo, D., & Sasa, M. (2025). Venom composition of Tityus cerroazul (Scorpiones: Buthidae) reveals similarities with venoms of other scorpion species from northern South America. Toxicon, 108385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108385