The almost unknown scorpion fauna (Arachnida: Scorpiones) of El Salvador, Central America

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  The almost unknown scorpion fauna (Arachnida: Scorpiones) of El Salvador, Central America Abstract (EN) The scorpions from Republic of El Salvador, Central America, have been poorly studied. The present work confirms the presence of at least six species in this country: Didymocentrus krausi Francke, 1978 (Diplocentridae), and five species belonging to the genus Centruroides Marx, 1899 (Buthidae), including the first records for Centruroides koesteri Kraepelin, 1911, Centruroides tapachulaensis Hoffmann, 1932, and an unidentified species of the thorellii species-group. Centruroides tapachulaensis had been confused with Centruroides edwardsii (Gervais, 1843), Centruroides gracilis (Latreille, 1804) and Centruroides margaritatus (Gervais, 1841). None of five nominal identified species are Salvadoran endemism. A taxonomical key is included for the identification of these six scorpion species. Most of the new records were made based on available data on the iNaturalist citizen science...

Role of Regulated Cell Death Pathways in Snakebite Envenomation: Mechanisms, Crosstalk, and Therapeutic Opportunities

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Role of Regulated Cell Death Pathways in Snakebite Envenomation: Mechanisms, Crosstalk, and Therapeutic Opportunities

Abstract

Snakebite envenomation causes severe tissue damage, often resulting in permanent disability with long-term complications like amputations and organ dysfunction. Current antivenoms, which are antibody-based, have lower tissue penetrability and limited efficacy in minimizing the local effects, highlighting the need for adjunct therapies. Emerging evidence indicates that venom-induced pathology is not restricted to direct cytotoxicity and necrosis; rather, it also involves multiple interconnected Regulated Cell Death (RCD) pathways, but their mechanistic interplay and therapeutic implications remain poorly understood. This review examines how venom toxins induce a cellular stress response characterized by oxidative stress, membrane disruption, and calcium overload, leading to the activation of interconnected regulated cell death (RCD) pathways, including apoptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis, together with autophagy and mitophagy, which primarily function as cellular stress responses that modulate these forms of regulated cell death. We further discuss the crosstalk between these RCD pathways and emerging therapeutic approaches targeting these mechanisms. Understanding these interconnected RCD pathways may facilitate the development of adjunct therapies that complement antivenom, reduce snakebite-induced morbidity, and improve clinical outcomes.

Alangode, A., Rajasekhar, A., Sabu, J. J., Krishna, S., Anuja, D., Sreeja, A., Remesh, G., Kaladevi, A., & Nair, B. G. (2026). Role of Regulated Cell Death Pathways in Snakebite Envenomation: Mechanisms, Crosstalk, and Therapeutic Opportunities. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 27(15), 6830. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27156830