Transcriptomic Insights Into the Evolution of Snake Venom: Mechanisms, Diversity, and Adaptation

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  Transcriptomic Insights Into the Evolution of Snake Venom: Mechanisms, Diversity, and Adaptation Abstract Snake venoms are evolutionarily refined biochemical arsenals composed of diverse toxins with complex functional roles in predation, defense, and competition. Over the past 2 decades, transcriptomic approaches have transformed venom research by enabling high-resolution insights into gene expression dynamics, molecular diversity, and the evolutionary mechanisms driving venom variation across lineages. In this review, we present a comprehensive synthesis of snake venom transcriptomics literature and propose a conceptual framework structured around three major axes: (1) gene family expansion through duplication and neofunctionalization; (2) regulatory complexity encompassing transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and epigenetic modulation; and (3) ecological selection pressures shaping venom profiles in response to diet, habitat, and interspecific interactions. We integrate findin...

The species of the genus Centruroides Marx, 1890 (Scorpiones: Buthidae) from Panama

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The species of the genus Centruroides Marx, 1890 (Scorpiones: Buthidae) from Panama

Abstract

This review examines the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and scorpionism of the Centruroides species (Scorpiones: Buthidae) of Panama. A taxonomic key is provided to easily identify the five confirmed species from Panama, but also including Centruroides edwardsii (Gervais, 1843) and Centruroides gracilis (Latreille, 1804). The recently reported first record of C. edwardsii in Panama seems to be based on misidentified specimens that belong to Centruroides granosus (Thorell, 1876), a Panamanian endemic species, or Centruroides margaritatus (Gervais, 1841), an introduced synanthropic species. Centruroides gracilis may potentially be present in this country. Only C. granosus and Centruroides panamensis Quintero and Esposito, 2014 are Panamanian endemics, whereas C. granosus and C. bicolor (Pocock, 1898) are the most widely distributed species in this Central American country. Envenomations by these species are frequent in Panama, but generally cause mild symptoms. Maps showing the distribution of the Panamanian Centruroides species are presented.

Miranda, R.J., Armas, L.F.D., Cleghorn, J., Lezcano, J.J., E., L.Y.C., Cambra, R.A. & Murgas, I.L. (2026) The species of the genus Centruroides Marx, 1890 (Scorpiones: Buthidae) from Panama. Zootaxa, 5752 (3), 301–347. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5752.3.1