Taxonomic revision of the Central and West African eumenophorine tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Eumenophorinae)

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  Taxonomic revision of the Central and West African eumenophorine tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Eumenophorinae) Abstract A continent-wide revision of the African theraphosid genera Anoploscelus Pocock, 1897, Batesiella Pocock, 1903, Eumenophorus Pocock, 1897, Loxomphalia Simon, 1889, the newly revalidated Harpaxotheria Simon, 1889 gen. rest., Phoneyusa Karsch, 1884, and Hysterocrates Simon, 1892 is pre sented. The monotypic genus Loxophobema Simon, 1907 and its type species L. rutilata (Simon, 1907) are proposed as nomina dubia. Similarly, Myostola occidentalis (Lucas, 1858) and its monotypic genus Myostola Simon, 1903 are proposed as nomina dubia. Harpaxotheria gabonica (Simon, 1889) is proposed as a nomen dubium. Eumenophorus stridulantissimus (Strand, 1907), Hysterocrates affinis Strand, 1907, Hysterocrates affinis angusticeps Strand, 1907, Hysterocrates haasi Strand, 1906, Hysterocrates spellenbergi Strand, 1906, Hysterocrates vosseleri Strand, 1906, Harpaxotheria nigrov...

Cobrotoxin suppresses TLR4-NF-κB/STAT1 signaling to mitigate glia-mediated neuroinflammation and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease

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Cobrotoxin suppresses TLR4-NF-κB/STAT1 signaling to mitigate glia-mediated neuroinflammation and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease

Abstract

Chronic neuroinflammation is implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), contributing to progressive dopaminergic neuron loss. Cobrotoxin (CoTX), a short-chain α-neurotoxin isolated from Naja atra venom, exerts anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in several inflammation-related disease models. However, whether CoTX modulates glia-mediated neuroinflammation or confers neuroprotection in PD remains unknown. In this study, we conducted a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial and preclinical animal studies to explore the therapeutic efficacy and mechanisms of CoTX in PD. A 12-day subcutaneous regimen of Cobratide (an injectable form of CoTX), consisting of 70 μg daily for 5 days, a 2-day interval, and another 5-day course, significantly improved motor symptoms in PD patients, as reflected by the UPDRS Part II + III scores, with a well-tolerated safety profile. These beneficial effects were further validated in both MPTP- and lipopolysaccharide-induced PD mouse models. Specifically, intranasal administration of CoTX ameliorated motor coordination defects, attenuated dopaminergic neuronal loss, and suppressed glia-mediated neuroinflammation in the substantia nigra of MPTP-challenged mice. Mechanistically, CoTX did not directly protect neurons; instead, it conferred indirect neuroprotection by inhibiting neuroinflammation via blockade of the NF-κB/STAT1 signaling cascades. Furthermore, CoTX functionally interacted with TLR4, which may act as a putative molecular target of CoTX. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the anti-neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective effects of CoTX in PD, highlighting its potential as a promising therapeutic candidate.
Yu, C., Ma, S., Cao, Y., Xu, D., Hou, X., Liu, C., Qin, Z., Luo, W., Wu, J., Liu, J., & Hu, L. (2026). Cobrotoxin suppresses TLR4-NF-κB/STAT1 signaling to mitigate glia-mediated neuroinflammation and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease. International Immunopharmacology, 188, 117322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2026.117322