Venom Mass Fingerprints for Species Delimitation, Reloaded: A Test Case with Italian Scorpions (Euscorpius)

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  Venom Mass Fingerprints for Species Delimitation, Reloaded: A Test Case with Italian Scorpions (Euscorpius) Abstract Scorpion venoms are complex mixtures of bioactive compounds including proteins, peptides and enzymes. Although venoms exhibit substantial intraspecific variation, some compounds appear to be species-specific, highlighting their potential as chemotaxonomic markers. Venom mass fingerprints (MFPs) derived from Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight (MALDI-TOF) Mass Spectrometry (MS) have been proposed as a means of delimiting species. However, their utility for species delimitation has rarely been evaluated against independent sources of taxonomic evidence. In the present study, the performance of MALDI-TOF MS-based venom peptide barcoding (mass ranges of m/z 800‒4500 and m/z 3000‒10,000) was assessed in 52 populations of eight Italian species of the scorpion genus Euscorpius Thorell, 1876, representing different levels of evolutionary divergenc...

Glutamine Alleviates Muscle Paralysis Induced by Bungarus multicinctus Envenomation via the Agrin-MuSK Signaling Pathway

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Glutamine Alleviates Muscle Paralysis Induced by Bungarus multicinctus Envenomation via the Agrin-MuSK Signaling Pathway

Abstract

This study investigated the effect of glutamine (Gln) on paralytic symptoms in rats poisoned by Bungarus multicinctus and explored the underlying mechanism, focusing on the Agrin-MuSK signaling pathway in neuromuscular transmission recovery.An ex vivo diaphragm tension assay assessed Gln's reversal of venom-induced neuromuscular blockade. A rat poisoning model was established with Bungarus multicinctus venom (0.15 mg/kg). Rats were divided into normal, venom, and venom+Gln groups. We evaluated survival, paralysis, blood gases (PaO2, PaCO2, PaSO2), diaphragm histopathology and ultrastructure, and oxidative stress markers (SOD, MDA). RT-qPCR and Western Blot analyzed key Agrin-MuSK pathway components (mRNA: Agrin, Chrne, Chrna, LRP4, MuSK, Rapsyn; protein: Agrin, p-MuSK/MuSK, α1- subunit of nAChR, ε- subunit of nAChR).
Gln significantly reversed venom-induced diaphragm tension decline ex vivo (P<0.05). In vivo, high-dose Gln (750 mg/kg) significantly improved survival (P<0.05), alleviated paralysis and hypoxia (increased PaSO2, PaO2; decreased PaCO2, P<0.05), reduced diaphragm ultrastructural damage, and enhanced antioxidant capacity (increased SOD, decreased MDA, P<0.05). Venom significantly suppressed key Agrin-MuSK pathway elements (Agrin, p-MuSK/MuSK; P<0.01). Gln intervention significantly upregulated the expression of pathway molecules (Agrin, Chrne, LRP4, MuSK, Rapsyn mRNA and Agrin, p-MuSK/MuSK protein; P<0.05 or P<0.01).Gln effectively alleviates paralysis and improves survival in Bungarus multicinctus-poisoned rats. This protection is associated with improved neuromuscular junction ultrastructure, reduced oxidative stress, and activation of the Agrin-MuSK signaling pathway, promoting neuromuscular transmission recovery. The study provides experimental evidence and potential therapeutic targets for Gln in treating Bungarus multicinctuspoisoning, especially respiratory paralysis.
Xiao, M., Hu, S., Jiang, N., Jia, Q., Zhang, Z., Dong, D., Mo, Q., & Liao, M. (2026). Glutamine Alleviates Muscle Paralysis Induced by Bungarus multicinctus Envenomation via the Agrin-MuSK Signaling Pathway. Toxicon, 109248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2026.109248