Scorpio basraensis sp. n. from southern Iraq (Scorpiones: Scorpionidae)

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  Scorpio basraensis sp. n. from southern Iraq (Scorpiones: Scorpionidae) Abstract A new scorpion species, Scorpio basraensis sp. n. , is described and illustrated from Basra Province, southern Iraq. Scorpio basraensis sp. n. is compared with all known species of the genus Scorpio Linnaeus, 1758 occurring in countries surrounding Iraq. The new species can be distinguished by the circular genital operculum in males and the cordiform genital operculum in females (not posteriorly elongated), a densely hirsute body, appendages and metasoma, a distinctly elongated telson vesicle, discrete granules on the external surface of the chela manus that are not flattened, and pectinal tooth counts of 11–13 in males and 9–11 in females. With the description of this species, the number of scorpion species known from Iraq increases to 22, whereas the number of recognized species in the genus Scorpio reaches 33. Yağmur, Ersen A.; Makki, Jafar A.; and Najim, Shurooq A. (2026) " Scorpio basraen...

BEYOND SPECIES-LEVEL DIFFERENCES: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF INTRASPECIFIC VENOM PLASTICITY IN SPIDERS

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BEYOND SPECIES-LEVEL DIFFERENCES: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF INTRASPECIFIC VENOM PLASTICITY IN SPIDERS

Abstract

Spider venoms represent a diverse array of biological cocktails, crucial for predator-prey dynamics and ecological interactions. While differences in venom composition between species (interspecific variation) are well-characterized, the extent and drivers of intraspecific venom plasticity remain a critical, underexplored area. This comprehensive review synthesizes current research on venom variation within species, emphasizing the multifaceted factors that govern this dynamic phenotype. Venom composition, yield, and bioactivity are significantly influenced by both endogenous and exogenous elements. Endogenous factors, mainly sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic stage, often induce profound changes in potency, reflecting sex-specific ecological pressures, predation risk profiles, and shifting reproductive investments. Similarly, exogenous pressures, including seasonal and geographic variations, drive adaptive shifts in venom profiles in response to environmental gradients like temperature and prey availability. Furthermore, recent advances in proteomics and transcriptomics reveal substantial individual-level chemo-diversity, underscoring the complexity of underlying regulatory mechanisms. A paradigm shift is necessary, viewing venom not as a static species characteristic but as a highly plastic, environmentally and genetically mediated trait. Future research must prioritize high-resolution, long-term intra-individual and population-level studies, especially in globally underrepresented taxa and regions, to fully elucidate the ecological and evolutionary forces shaping this crucial biological system.
Anna Anannya, K., & Malamel, J. J. (2026). BEYOND SPECIES-LEVEL DIFFERENCES: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF INTRASPECIFIC VENOM PLASTICITY IN SPIDERS. Toxicon, 109121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2026.109121