Advancing the systematics of Araneae: ultraconserved elements phylogenomics demonstrates the non-monophyly of Miturgidae Simon, 1886 and supports the Familial Rank of Systariidae Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001

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  Advancing the systematics of Araneae: ultraconserved elements phylogenomics demonstrates the non-monophyly of Miturgidae Simon, 1886 and supports the Familial Rank of Systariidae Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 Abstract The systematic status of the family Miturgidae Simon, 1886 and related subfamilies has long been problematic, primarily due to challenges in interpreting morphological characters and limited molecular sampling. In this study, we reconstruct the phylogeny of Miturgidae using ultraconserved elements and estimate its divergence time. Our results suggest that Systariinae does not belong to Miturgidae, but rather is sister to all other families of the Dionycha B clade. Consequently, we elevate it to family rank as Systariidae Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 and discuss its morphological synapomorphies. Furthermore, our analyses place Miturgidae as the sister clade to Viridasiidae + Selenopidae under multiple phylogenetic methods. Divergence time estimates indicate an ancient origin of...

Integrative Approaches in Snake Venom-Induced Tissue and Organ Toxicity: Ethnomedicinal and Phytochemical Strategies as Complementary Antivenom Therapies

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Integrative Approaches in Snake Venom-Induced Tissue and Organ Toxicity: Ethnomedicinal and Phytochemical Strategies as Complementary Antivenom Therapies

Abstract

Objective

To review the pathophysiological mechanisms of snakebite envenomation, especially the roles of phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), and to assess the therapeutic potential of plant-derived phytochemicals as complementary options to traditional antivenom therapy.

Materials and Methods

A comprehensive literature review was performed to identify studies addressing snake venom–induced tissue and organ toxicity and the therapeutic potential of medicinal plants and phytochemicals. The databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar were systematically searched. Key search terms included combinations of snakebite, snake venom, phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂), snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), tissue damage, oxidative stress, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, ethnomedicine, and antivenom adjuvant therapy.

Results

Snake venom enzymes, including PLA₂ and SVMPs, cause severe local and systemic effects, such as neurotoxicity, myotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and hemotoxicity, leading to paralysis, haemorrhage, necrosis, and multi-organ failure. While conventional antivenoms effectively neutralize systemic toxicity, they offer limited protection against rapid local damage. Phytochemicals from medicinal plants show promising potential to counteract the effects of venom by neutralising reactive oxygen species, stabilising cellular membranes, and inhibiting venom enzymes. Evidence suggests that combining these compounds with antivenom improves therapeutic effectiveness, reduces the required antivenom dose, and decreases adverse reactions.

Conclusion

Plant-derived phytochemicals are promising adjunctive therapies for snakebite envenomation, targeting oxidative stress, inflammation, and venom enzyme activity. Combining phytomedicine with antivenom offers a synergistic, accessible, and cost-effective approach to improving outcomes, particularly in resource-limited areas. Further research is needed to confirm the safety, efficacy, and optimal delivery methods for clinical use.

Rajkapoor, B., Prabhakaran kala, P., Gandhi, S., Periasamy, S., & V, S. R. (2026). Integrative Approaches in Snake Venom-Induced Tissue and Organ Toxicity: Ethnomedicinal and Phytochemical Strategies as Complementary Antivenom Therapies. Pharmacological Research - Natural Products, 100597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prenap.2026.100597