Transcriptomic Insights Into the Evolution of Snake Venom: Mechanisms, Diversity, and Adaptation

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  Transcriptomic Insights Into the Evolution of Snake Venom: Mechanisms, Diversity, and Adaptation Abstract Snake venoms are evolutionarily refined biochemical arsenals composed of diverse toxins with complex functional roles in predation, defense, and competition. Over the past 2 decades, transcriptomic approaches have transformed venom research by enabling high-resolution insights into gene expression dynamics, molecular diversity, and the evolutionary mechanisms driving venom variation across lineages. In this review, we present a comprehensive synthesis of snake venom transcriptomics literature and propose a conceptual framework structured around three major axes: (1) gene family expansion through duplication and neofunctionalization; (2) regulatory complexity encompassing transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and epigenetic modulation; and (3) ecological selection pressures shaping venom profiles in response to diet, habitat, and interspecific interactions. We integrate findin...

Morphology and Genetic Diversity of Golden Silk Orb-weaver (Nephila) Spiders in Thailand

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Morphology and Genetic Diversity of Golden Silk Orb-weaver (Nephila) Spiders in Thailand

Spiders play a pivotal role in ecosystems, serving as predators to regulate populations of small organisms. They commonly exhibit body color polymorphism which could be due to a combination of environmental factors, adaptation, or genetic drift from population subdivision. This polymorphism, in turn, could affect their behavior and prey capture efficiency. Certain morphological traits may be unique to specific subregions, suggesting possible subspecies classification. In this study, we examined morphological polymorphism in the giant wood spider, Nephila pilipes, in Thailand, particularly focusing on leg variation and genetic variation at the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene. We used partial sequence of the COI gene for our samples and constructed a phylogenetic tree by including other species. We explored the relationship between morphological polymorphism, COI genotype, and geographic distribution. Our findings categorized female N. pilipes into seven types based on legs I and IV, with no correlation to geographic region. The N. pilipes specimens formed two clades, each containing all leg types and collection regions, consistent with low genetic differentiation within the species. Trichonephila antipodiana specimens formed three clades while all Argyrodes flavescens specimens were grouped into a monophyletic clade. Additionally, Nephila kuhli, previously suggested to be a melanic morph of N. pilipes, was also included in the N. pilipes cluster, with a low genetic distance. Our results suggest that the leg variants in N. pilipes represent polymorphism within the species rather than distinct biospecies.

Lertkulvanich F, Swatdipong A, Warrit N, Nipitwattanaphon M. 2025. Morphology and genetic diversity of golden silk orb-weaver (Nephila) spiders in Thailand. Zool Stud 64:53. doi:10.6620/ZS.2025.64-53. ( Received 14 May 2025 / Accepted 11 August 2025 / Published 06 November 2025 ) DOI: https://doi.org/10.6620/ZS.2025.64-53