Sex Role–Dependent Behavioral and Architectural Divergence in a Jumping Spider

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  Sex Role–Dependent Behavioral and Architectural Divergence in a Jumping Spider ABSTRACT Sex differences in behavior and functional traits are often attributed to differences in mating effort intensity, but the role of sex-specific parental demands remains poorly understood. Using the jumping spider Toxeus maxillosus —where males engage in mate searching and courtship without providing parental care, while females provide extended maternal care from egg attendance to offspring maturity (around 3 months)—we conducted an exploratory investigation into whether these distinct selective pressures led to divergence in spatial behaviors and nest architecture. Results revealed that males and females showed equivalent accuracy, latency, and learning-related performance in both a route-planning test under water stress and a color-pattern associative memory task. In contrast, during nest-construction assays, females built complex, multi-entrance structures that closely matched the container'...

Environmental adaptation and functional diversity of calcin peptides from the venom of East Asian scorpions

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Environmental adaptation and functional diversity of calcin peptides from the venom of East Asian scorpions

Abstract

Toxins as naturally occurring hazardous substances, have evolved as a defense mechanism in organisms for survival. The expression of toxins is profoundly influenced by environmental factors, and the investigation of their correlation holds significant implications for understanding toxin-induced harm and developing protective measures. Scorpions are a significant venomous species, and the relationship between the variability in scorpion toxin expression and environmental factors remains unclear. By conducting transcriptome profiling of scorpion samples collected from eight distinct climatic and environmental regions in East Asia, we successfully identified two distinct scorpion species. Furthermore, we found that the divergence in toxin composition, specifically the expression of two recently discovered calcins are closely aligned with the environmental humidity of their respective habitats. These calcins exhibited varying capacities to modulate the binding affinity of [3H]ryanodine to ryanodine receptors, inducing prolonged subconductance states. Our findings demonstrate that the distinct toxin arsenals of these scorpions reflect long-term adaptive evolution to their specific climatic niches. This study underscores the importance of considering ecological factors in understanding the evolutionary diversification of venomous species, providing a theoretical foundation for the rational exploration of natural toxins in traditional Chinese medicine and drug discovery.
Hua, X., Yang, Z., Xiao, L., Gao, S., Yang, F., Tao, B., Wang, Y., Wang, J., Valdivia, C. R., Chen, W., Jiang, W., Sun, H., Wu, D., Pozzolini, M., Chen, L., Valdivia, H. H., & Xiao, L. (2026). Environmental adaptation and functional diversity of calcin peptides from the venom of East Asian scorpions. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 310, 119781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2026.119781