Venom Variation as a Window into the Ecology and Evolution of Snakes

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  Venom Variation as a Window into the Ecology and Evolution of Snakes Abstract Snake venoms are complex biochemical systems that function primarily in prey subjugation and defense, yet their composition varies extensively across individuals, populations, species, and environments. This variation provides a powerful framework for investigating ecological and evolutionary processes. Here, we offer a forward-looking synthesis of snake venom diversity that proposes new research directions and highlights how venom variation can illuminate eco-evolutionary dynamics across biological scales. We review evidence for ten key contexts in which venom variation arises, including within-population differences, sexual dimorphism, geographic structuring, ontogenetic shifts, seasonal changes, interspecific divergence, hybridization, convergent evolution, prey specificity, and venom resistance. Together, these processes demonstrate that venom phenotypes are shaped by interacting selective pressures...

Environmental adaptation and functional diversity of calcin peptides from the venom of East Asian scorpions

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Environmental adaptation and functional diversity of calcin peptides from the venom of East Asian scorpions

Abstract

Toxins as naturally occurring hazardous substances, have evolved as a defense mechanism in organisms for survival. The expression of toxins is profoundly influenced by environmental factors, and the investigation of their correlation holds significant implications for understanding toxin-induced harm and developing protective measures. Scorpions are a significant venomous species, and the relationship between the variability in scorpion toxin expression and environmental factors remains unclear. By conducting transcriptome profiling of scorpion samples collected from eight distinct climatic and environmental regions in East Asia, we successfully identified two distinct scorpion species. Furthermore, we found that the divergence in toxin composition, specifically the expression of two recently discovered calcins are closely aligned with the environmental humidity of their respective habitats. These calcins exhibited varying capacities to modulate the binding affinity of [3H]ryanodine to ryanodine receptors, inducing prolonged subconductance states. Our findings demonstrate that the distinct toxin arsenals of these scorpions reflect long-term adaptive evolution to their specific climatic niches. This study underscores the importance of considering ecological factors in understanding the evolutionary diversification of venomous species, providing a theoretical foundation for the rational exploration of natural toxins in traditional Chinese medicine and drug discovery.
Hua, X., Yang, Z., Xiao, L., Gao, S., Yang, F., Tao, B., Wang, Y., Wang, J., Valdivia, C. R., Chen, W., Jiang, W., Sun, H., Wu, D., Pozzolini, M., Chen, L., Valdivia, H. H., & Xiao, L. (2026). Environmental adaptation and functional diversity of calcin peptides from the venom of East Asian scorpions. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 310, 119781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2026.119781