A Paradigm Shift in Snakebite Envenoming Therapy: From Conventional Antivenoms to Rationally Designed, Broadly Neutralizing Combination Therapies

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  A Paradigm Shift in Snakebite Envenoming Therapy: From Conventional Antivenoms to Rationally Designed, Broadly Neutralizing Combination Therapies Abstract For over a century, polyclonal antivenom has been the cornerstone of snakebite therapy, saving countless lives. However, the current production method, based on immunizing large animals, has inherent limitations in terms of safety, stability, and supply reliability, thereby creating a pressing need for alternative technologies. This review charts the rise of next-generation antivenoms built on recombinant antibody engineering. We systematically survey the strategies for discovering and developing these molecules, from humanized monoclonal antibodies and VHHs to computationally designed proteins. Our central thesis is that achieving broad-spectrum neutralization against complex venoms requires a shift from single-agent approaches to rationally designed, oligoclonal “cocktail” therapies (defined mixtures of a few select therapeut...

Taxonomic review of the genus Grismadox Pett, Rubio & Perger, 2022 (Araneae: Corinnidae: Castianeirinae): new species, combinations and records

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Taxonomic review of the genus Grismadox Pett, Rubio & Perger, 2022 (Araneae: Corinnidae: Castianeirinae): new species, combinations and records

Abstract

The taxonomy of the myrmecomorphic spider genus Grismadox Pett, Rubio & Perger, 2022 is reviewed. The identity of Apochinomma armatum Mello-Leitão, 1922 is re-evaluated and the species is hereby transferred to Grismadox. Castianeira monai Pett, 2023 is also transferred to Grismadox. Two new species from Brazil are described and illustrated: Grismadox nazgul sp. nov. [♂♀] and G. annatar sp. nov. [♂ only]. The known distribution of the genus is expanded and ranges from northeastern Brazil to the far south of the country, as well as Bolivia and Paraguay. New diagnoses are provided for G. karugua Pett, Rubio & Perger, 2022, G. mazaxoides (Perger & Dupérré, 2021), G. mboitui (Pett, 2021) and G. elsneri Pett, Rubio & Perger, 2022 and scanning electron microscopy images of the genus are provided for the first time. Additionally, a key to all the known species of the genus is presented.

Junior, C.J.S., Pett, B.L. & Bonaldo, A.B. (2025) Taxonomic review of the genus Grismadox Pett, Rubio & Perger, 2022 (Araneae: Corinnidae: Castianeirinae): new species, combinations and records. Zootaxa, 5706 (2), 151–174. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5706.2.1