Venom Variation as a Window into the Ecology and Evolution of Snakes

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  Venom Variation as a Window into the Ecology and Evolution of Snakes Abstract Snake venoms are complex biochemical systems that function primarily in prey subjugation and defense, yet their composition varies extensively across individuals, populations, species, and environments. This variation provides a powerful framework for investigating ecological and evolutionary processes. Here, we offer a forward-looking synthesis of snake venom diversity that proposes new research directions and highlights how venom variation can illuminate eco-evolutionary dynamics across biological scales. We review evidence for ten key contexts in which venom variation arises, including within-population differences, sexual dimorphism, geographic structuring, ontogenetic shifts, seasonal changes, interspecific divergence, hybridization, convergent evolution, prey specificity, and venom resistance. Together, these processes demonstrate that venom phenotypes are shaped by interacting selective pressures...

Drinking to the last drop! Record of honeydew consumption by a ghost spider (Araneae: Anyphaenidae) in an urban environment in southeastern Brazil

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Drinking to the last drop! Record of honeydew consumption by a ghost spider (Araneae: Anyphaenidae) in an urban environment in southeastern Brazil

Abstract

This study documents, for the first time, the consumption of honeydew by a spider of the genus Aysha (Anyphaenidae) in an urban environment in southeastern Brazil. Spiders are generalist predators, but some species exploit non-prey food sources, such as nectar and honeydew. The observation took place on Cinnamomum verum, an exotic tree frequently infested by the leafhopper Aethalion reticulatum, which produces honeydew consumed by various insects. A female Aysha was observed ingesting honeydew droplets trapped on silk threads of a web belonging to an unknown spider located below a colony of A. reticulatum, over three consecutive nights, suggesting that this food resource may represent a supplementary diet, which may benefit the spiders particularly during periods of prey scarcity. Further studies are needed to elucidate the role of this resource in spider feeding ecology.
Oliveira, G. C., Demetrio, G. R., Jacques, G. C., Silva, I. H., Souza, M. M., & Brescovit, A. D. (2025). Drinking to the last drop! Record of honeydew consumption by a ghost spider (Araneae: Anyphaenidae) in an urban environment in southeastern Brazil. Food Webs, 44, e00406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fooweb.2025.e00406