Beyond Venom and Constriction: Bite Performance and Trophic Ecology in the Genus Drymarchon

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  Beyond Venom and Constriction: Bite Performance and Trophic Ecology in the Genus Drymarchon Abstract Snakes exhibit extreme cranial kinesis that facilitates ingestion of prey with large cross-sectional area, but this ability is widely predicted to reduce bite performance due to decreased structural rigidity. Consequently, most large-bodied snakes rely on envenomation or constriction to subdue prey prior to ingestion. Species within the genus Drymarchon represent a notable exception: these large, non-venomous, non-constricting snakes routinely consume a wide range of prey, including large and potentially dangerous vertebrates, using only simple seizing and pinioning behaviors. Here, we quantify bite performance in three species of Drymarchon ( D. corais, D. couperi, and D. melanurus ), examine morphological predictors of biting performance, compare biting pressure to constriction pressure in similarly sized snakes, and synthesize dietary records across the genus. Our results sh...

Viperid Venom Immunization Using Chitosan Nanoparticles as Immunoadjuvant

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Viperid Venom Immunization Using Chitosan Nanoparticles as Immunoadjuvant

Abstract

Purpose

Viperid venoms are difficult to neutralize; up to 19 antivenom vials may be used for severe snake envenomation, so new adjuvants may improve the efficacy of antivenoms. This work aims to utilize chitosan nanoparticles as an immunoadjuvant for the development of neutralizing antibodies against four viperid venoms from the species Lachesis acrochorda (La), Bothrops asper (Bas), Bothrops ayerbei (Bay), and Bothrops rhombeatus (Br), which are of medical importance in Colombia.

Methods

Chitosan nanoparticles were loaded with four viper venoms and encapsulated via ionic gelation for use as an immunoadjuvant. Chromatography, electron microscopy, polydispersity index, and infrared spectroscopy demonstrated the encapsulation of the venoms.

Results

Rabbit immunizations were conducted using chitosan encapsulated venoms, and they were found qualitatively to be less harmful than the adjuvant control (incomplete Freund’s and aluminum hydroxide as adjuvants).

Conclusions

Although rabbit antibodies obtained with chitosan-venom nanoparticles showed no significant differences in antibody titers (AT50s) compared to the immunization control, they showed slightly better neutralization than the control group. Encapsulating chitosan nanoparticles with viperid venom could be a useful approach and an alternative immunoadjuvant for enhancing neutralizing antibodies.

Ángel-Camilo, K.L., Guerrero-Vargas, J.A., García-Barrera, K.L. et al. Viperid Venom Immunization Using Chitosan Nanoparticles as Immunoadjuvant. Int J Pept Res Ther 32, 69 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10989-026-10843-1