Differentiation in ant-eating spiders based on offensive and defensive exploitation of ants

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  Differentiation in ant-eating spiders based on offensive and defensive exploitation of ants Abstract Ecological speciation via host-race has been documented in several herbivores and parasitoids. Analogous prey-race has recently been suggested to explain the diversity of specialised ant-eating spiders. Two sister species from the Iberian Peninsula, Zodarion alacre and Z. andalusiacum (Zodariidae), possess almost identical copulatory organs, but differ in body size and colouration. Zodarion spiders exploit different ant species offensively (as prey) and defensively (as mimetic models). Here we tested the hypothesis of prey-race diversification in these two species via offensive and defensive exploitation. We studied the diet of both species using metabarcoding, recorded their circadian activity in the field, investigated their mimetic similarity to ants, and modelled visual perception by potential predators. We found that both species feed on ants but Z. alacre hunted larger ant s...

Viperid Venom Immunization Using Chitosan Nanoparticles as Immunoadjuvant

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Viperid Venom Immunization Using Chitosan Nanoparticles as Immunoadjuvant

Abstract

Purpose

Viperid venoms are difficult to neutralize; up to 19 antivenom vials may be used for severe snake envenomation, so new adjuvants may improve the efficacy of antivenoms. This work aims to utilize chitosan nanoparticles as an immunoadjuvant for the development of neutralizing antibodies against four viperid venoms from the species Lachesis acrochorda (La), Bothrops asper (Bas), Bothrops ayerbei (Bay), and Bothrops rhombeatus (Br), which are of medical importance in Colombia.

Methods

Chitosan nanoparticles were loaded with four viper venoms and encapsulated via ionic gelation for use as an immunoadjuvant. Chromatography, electron microscopy, polydispersity index, and infrared spectroscopy demonstrated the encapsulation of the venoms.

Results

Rabbit immunizations were conducted using chitosan encapsulated venoms, and they were found qualitatively to be less harmful than the adjuvant control (incomplete Freund’s and aluminum hydroxide as adjuvants).

Conclusions

Although rabbit antibodies obtained with chitosan-venom nanoparticles showed no significant differences in antibody titers (AT50s) compared to the immunization control, they showed slightly better neutralization than the control group. Encapsulating chitosan nanoparticles with viperid venom could be a useful approach and an alternative immunoadjuvant for enhancing neutralizing antibodies.

Ángel-Camilo, K.L., Guerrero-Vargas, J.A., García-Barrera, K.L. et al. Viperid Venom Immunization Using Chitosan Nanoparticles as Immunoadjuvant. Int J Pept Res Ther 32, 69 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10989-026-10843-1