The largest fossil of the segmented spider Parvithele muelleri Wunderlich, 2017 (Mesothelae: Parvithelidae) from Cretaceous Burmese amber

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  The largest fossil of the segmented spider Parvithele muelleri Wunderlich, 2017 (Mesothelae: Parvithelidae) from Cretaceous Burmese amber Abstract A new specimen of the fossil spider Parvithele muelleri Wunderlich, 2017 (Araneae: Mesothelae) is described from the mid-Cretaceous (ca. 99 Ma) Burmese amber of Myanmar. Like the original holotype, the new specimen is a mature male, which clearly preserves a series of tibial macrospines, similar to the condition in the extant genus Liphistius Schiødte, 1849. Given that the single extant mesothele family, Liphistiidae, is predicted to have radiated ca. 39–58 million years ago, the occurrence of somewhat modern-looking male pedipalp spination in older fossil mesotheles is of considerable interest. The new specimen also shows spinnerets in a relatively posterior position, although variability observed in extant species suggests that this trait may be of limited systematic value. Of particular note is the presence of a large and well-dev...

Snake venom gland organoids and biotechnological applications: a comprehensive review for translational medicine

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Snake venom gland organoids and biotechnological applications: a comprehensive review for translational medicine

Abstract

Background

Snake envenomation affects 1.2–5.5 million people annually, causing up to 125,000 deaths worldwide. This represents one of the most neglected tropical diseases globally. Traditional venom research relies on manual snake milking. This poses safety risks and produces variable venom quality. Current antivenom therapies suffer from species-specificity and batch-to-batch variation.

Aim

This review evaluates snake venom gland organoid technology as a transformative platform. The aim is to address critical limitations in venom research and antivenom production while exploring biotechnological applications.

Experimental approach

A narrative literature search was conducted across PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus databases (1990–2024). Systematic search strategies combined MeSH terms and keywords including "snake venom organoids" and "3D cell culture." Boolean operators were employed to combine search terms effectively. Inclusion criteria encompassed peer-reviewed English articles describing organoid technology applied to reptilian tissues. After removing duplicates and applying selection criteria, 67 directly relevant articles were analyzed. Additional references were identified through manual screening and citation tracking.

Key findings

Snake venom gland organoids have been successfully established from nine species across major venomous families. Organoids maintain cellular heterogeneity and authentic toxin production for over two years. They recapitulate native venom gland architecture and produce biologically active toxins. Genetic modification through CRISPR/Cas9 technology is possible. Applications span antivenom development, toxin production platforms, and drug discovery systems. Technology addresses traditional limitations while providing scalable pharmaceutical alternatives. Implementation timelines range 1–10 years across five biotechnological sectors.

Conclusions

Snake venom gland organoids represent a paradigm shift in toxinology research. They offer opportunities for standardized venom production and reduced animal dependence. Despite challenges in protocol standardization, this technology demonstrates significant commercial potential. Organoid platforms position as cornerstones for addressing global snakebite envenoming challenges.

Impact statement

This review addresses a critical gap in toxinology by comprehensively evaluating snake venom gland organoid technology as a sustainable alternative to traditional venom extraction. Organoids enable standardized toxin production while reducing reliance on animal use. By integrating biotechnological applications with clinical translation pathways, this review provides the first systematic analysis of organoid-based strategies for antivenom development. We critically assess current advances and limitations and identify key research priorities. Overall, this work establishes organoids as transformative tools bridging venom biology and therapeutic innovation to address global snakebite envenoming challenges.


Jayathilaka, N. S., Maduwage, K., & Weththasinghe, A. V. (2026). Snake venom gland organoids and biotechnological applications: a comprehensive review for translational medicine. Toxin Reviews, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15569543.2026.2623493