Origin and Evolution of Venom in Squamate Reptiles

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  Origin and Evolution of Venom in Squamate Reptiles Abstract Reptile venoms have become a central focus of biological research for two fundamentally different reasons: for public health, venomous snakes are of considerable importance, and for evolutionary research, where venoms provide exemplary systems for studying the links between genotype, biochemical phenotype, and environment. The advent of -omics technologies has enabled major advances in our understanding of the evolution of reptile venoms and their regulatory mechanisms. Here, we reanalyze evidence on the early evolution of venom in squamates and find support for multiple independent origins, rather than a single origin. We review the current state of knowledge on the evolution of toxin genes, the selective drivers of venom evolution, and the regulatory mechanisms controlling the synthesis of venom from the information contained in the genome. We stress that, while -omics technologies have revolutionized our knowledge of ...

Zebrafish as Versatile Model for Assessing Animal Venoms and Toxins: Current Applications and Future Prospects

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Zebrafish as Versatile Model for Assessing Animal Venoms and Toxins: Current Applications and Future Prospects

Abstract

Animal venoms and toxins hold promise as sources of novel drug candidates, therapeutic agents, and biomolecules. To fully harness their potential, it is crucial to develop reliable testing methods that provide a comprehensive understanding of their effects and mechanisms of action. However, traditional rodent assays encounter difficulties in mimicking venom-induced effects in human due to the impractical venom dosage levels. The search for reliable testing methods has led to the emergence of zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a versatile model organism for evaluating animal venoms and toxins. Zebrafish possess genetic similarities to humans, rapid development, transparency, and amenability to high-throughput assays, making it ideal for assessing the effects of animal venoms and toxins. This review highlights unique attributes of zebrafish and explores their applications in studying venom- and toxin-induced effects from various species, including snakes, jellyfish, cuttlefish, anemones, spiders, and cone snails. Through zebrafish-based research, intricate physiological responses, developmental alterations, and potential therapeutic interventions induced by venoms are revealed. Novel techniques such as CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, optogenetics, and high-throughput screening hold great promise for advancing venom research. As zebrafish-based insights converge with findings from other models, the comprehensive understanding of venom-induced effects continues to expand, guiding the development of targeted interventions and promoting both scientific knowledge and practical applications.
Zebrafish as Versatile Model for Assessing Animal Venoms and Toxins: Current Applications and Future Prospects
Fajar Sofyantoro, Nur Indah Septriani, Donan Satria Yudha, Ega Adhi Wicaksono, Dwi Sendi Priyono, Wahyu Aristyaning Putri, Alfian Primahesa, Anita Restu Puji Raharjeng, Yekti Asih Purwestri, and Tri Rini Nuringtyas https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/zeb.2023.0088