BEYOND SPECIES-LEVEL DIFFERENCES: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF INTRASPECIFIC VENOM PLASTICITY IN SPIDERS

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  BEYOND SPECIES-LEVEL DIFFERENCES: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF INTRASPECIFIC VENOM PLASTICITY IN SPIDERS Abstract Spider venoms represent a diverse array of biological cocktails, crucial for predator-prey dynamics and ecological interactions. While differences in venom composition between species (interspecific variation) are well-characterized, the extent and drivers of intraspecific venom plasticity remain a critical, underexplored area. This comprehensive review synthesizes current research on venom variation within species, emphasizing the multifaceted factors that govern this dynamic phenotype. Venom composition, yield, and bioactivity are significantly influenced by both endogenous and exogenous elements. Endogenous factors, mainly sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic stage, often induce profound changes in potency, reflecting sex-specific ecological pressures, predation risk profiles, and shifting reproductive investments. Similarly, exogenous pressures, including seasonal and g...

Untangling the web: dynamics of Australia's online terrestrial invertebrate trade

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Untangling the web: dynamics of Australia's online terrestrial invertebrate trade


Abstract

The trade and keeping of exotic pets has serious implications for both biosecurity and biodiversity conservation. In Australia, the online trade of live invertebrates is an understudied and unregulated issue, with almost non-existent monitoring. It is uncertain what species are being traded, whether they are being identified correctly, and how they are being sourced (i.e., captive bred or wild harvested, native, or alien). Consequently, potential invasion risks and conservation concerns remain unknown. Here, we explored the online trade of terrestrial invertebrates in Australia across a range of publicly available e-commerce platforms. We detected 264 species of invertebrate traded, from 71 families and 168 genera over 12 months. The native Extatosoma tiaratum (giant prickly stick insect) was the most traded species, while the most popular families were Phasmatidae (stick insects), Formicidae (ants) and Theraphosidae (tarantulas). Three species are known to be invasive in Australia, while 87% of species traded were native. The conservation status of almost of the species (92%) listed in the invertebrate trade has not been evaluated. Exploring socio-demographic relationships, we found that human population density was positively correlated with the location of invertebrate sellers. Further, we found the classifieds website had lower prices in contrast to traditional online pet-stores (median of c. A$7 less). Finally, we did not observe a saturation in the number of species traded in our one-year study, exemplifying the need for large scale monitoring and risk assessments for Australia's online terrestrial invertebrate trade. We recommend continued surveillance of live invertebrate trade on e-commerce sites. Substantial changes to legislation and monitoring methods are required at a national level to control the vast number of invertebrates traded across the country, and to minimise the future risks of the invertebrate trade.


Lassaline, C.R., Stringham, O.C., Moncayo, S., Toomes, A. & Cassey, P. (2023) Untangling the web: dynamics of Australia's online terrestrial invertebrate trade. Austral Entomology, 62(3), 372–387. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/aen.12662